The Concept Of Civilization And Culture Cultural Studies Essay

The Concept Of Civilization And Culture Cultural Studies Essay These characteristics of civilization shows that the emergence of civilization significantly stabilized the social life and the course of history, created the conditions for the accumulation of historical experience and, of course, contributed to a more productive development of culture.  Now certain people or a community of people can protect their cultural achievements, to keep statements about his past recordings, rather than relying on an unstable human memory and the fragility of individual lives.   However, it becomes clear that the notion of civilization do not coincide with the notion of culture: civilization as it concentrates mainly those aspects of social life, which maintained a technical component of the culture, not its semantic foundation.   Of course, the concept of Spengler is too radical to review aspects of interaction of culture and civilization.  Real their relationship is, of course, much more complicated.  Civilization, in the first place, and there may be only on the basis of certain cultural achievements, in this sense, it really appears virtually identical culture.  But at the same time it differs from culture as their functions and target orientation.  Does not coincide with the culture, civilization is an important stimulus for socio-historical form of culture.  The interests of culture and civilization, and indeed may oppose each other, and such periods have been observed in human history.   Anyway, culture and civilization appear in two different sides of human social and historical existence, and their opposition, but also the mutual stimulation are normal.   Today the concept of civilization is often used to determine the achieved level of social development, as well as a certain level of functioning of culture in all its components.  In other words: civilization is a level of state and society, which are inherent in the high rise of culture and its effective functioning of all branches of life of society.   Modern civilization, often referred to as post-industrial forms its own culture, which has its own distinctive features, notably the high level of science, engineering and technology.  However, the above-mentioned features of modern civilization has brought to humanity not only positive changes.  The most important negative consequence of the emergence of so-called global problems of modern civilization due to the fact that the human, technical and production activities in its scope has reached the size of planetary processes.  Globalization, as a characteristic tendency of our time and gradually promotes the fusion of different cultures into a single mass culture.   However, Noosphere culture contradictory: she gave the man an unprecedented comfort and features, but relentlessly robs people of their natural beginning and thus deprives them of a certain future.  This contradiction is not only a source of hope and expectation, but also great concern over the future of man and mankind. So, on the bases of civilization arises as a set of forms that stabilize society; between culture and civilization formed a complex, contradictory system of mutual interaction.  One of the manifestations of these contradictions have become global problems of modern post-industrial civilization in nature.   The existence of different approaches to the definition and origin of civilization is caused by different content that is embedded in its interpretation.  In accordance with the contents of the essence of Civilizations and the criteria for its evaluation, determined the type of civilization.  Despite the diversity of existing views on civilization, the scientists were unanimous in relation to such of its important characteristics: 1) the formation of the state, and 2) the emergence of writing, 3) Department of Agriculture from crafts, 4) stratification of society into classes, and 5) the emergence of cities.  The presence of the first two traits nearly all recognize as compulsory, and the need for other frequently refers in doubt.Even if we take into account the first three features, they are already characterize the civilization as a socio-cultural and economic center.  The emergence of writing indicates the possibility to record information rather than store it in memory, a nd characterizes the separation of mental from physical labor, which made it possible to concentrate the efforts of individual groups of people on the development of art and different forms of positive knowledge.  The city is a cell, around which dominated primitive forms of social life of the nomadic tribes.  They perform specific functions in society: there were the centers of agricultural production, handicrafts, trade, ideology, ideological outpost.  It was during the era of the first civilizations systematized and centralized the ideological sphere, has a really strong spiritual influence on the masses, forming a geocentric type of social consciousness.  This is confirmed by the attractions of monumental architecture (huge palaces, pyramids, monuments), which showed strong production potential of society, make them.   Principled position of scientists of the Soviet period was the selection of formation types of civilization: ancient oriental despotisms, slave, feudal, bourgeois society.  This approach differed from the views of many Western scholars, who mainly rely on the concept of Arnold Toynbee, which explains both the course of development of all human cultures, applying the concept of civilization to the peculiarities of the development of peoples and cultures of different regions and countries.  [1, s.350]   Civilizational approach has been widely used in studies of historical and cultural-historical typology.  In this case, we can distinguish three approaches in the interpretation of the concept of civilization: a locally historic, historical, stadial, and world-historical.   Among the supporters of the local-historical approach there is no unanimity on the question of how many civilizations have been in the past and how many they are now.   N. Danilevskiy singled out (in chronological order) the following civilization, or cultural-historical styles: Egyptian, Assyrian-Babylonian-finikiyskugo, Indian, Iranian, Jewish, Greek, Roman, Arabian, Germanic-Romance (European) and Slavic.  Spengler considered such historical and cultural worlds: the Egyptian, Indian, Babylonian, Chinese, Greco-Roman (apollonovsky), Mayan and Western European (Faust).   In Arnold Toynbee in the pre-classification, there are a number of companies of one kind, which, as historian wrote, called civilizations: Egyptian, Andean, Chinese, Minoan, Sumerian, manyanskoe, Syrian, Indies, Hittite, Hellenistic, Orthodox Christian (in Russia  ), the Far East (Korea and Japan), Orthodox Christian (mainly), the Far East (mainly), Iranian, Arab, Hindu, Mexican, Yucatan, Babylonian.   In a more condensed classification Toynbee identified, but the western world, Christian Orthodox, or Byzantine Society, located in South-Eastern Europe and Russia, Islamic society , concentrated in the arid zone (the region of arid steppes, deserts and semi-desert)  passing diagonally across North Africa and the Middle East from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Wall of China, Hindu society in the tropical subkontinentalyyuy India to the south-east of the arid zone, Far Eastern society in the subtropical and temperate areas between arid zone and the Pacific Ocean.   This classification of civilizations was the basis for the concept of L. Vasilyev, who identified five contemporary civilizations: Western Europe, Russian, Islamic, Indo-Buddhist and Confucian.   X.  White, using tropologichesky approach identified four civilizational and historical types of culture: the ironic (Western Europe), metaphorical (Middle East), sinekdotichesky (India) and analogical (China).   As part of the historical and stadial approach depending on the choice of any axiomatic criteria identify different types of civilizations.  In modern literature, for example, are considered types such as oral, written, book and screen, cosmogenic, technological and man-made, traditional and modern, evolutionary and innovative civilization.   However, in most cases, historical and stadial studies used a technocratic approach, based on which secrete an agrarian (pre-industrial), manufacturing (industrial) and information (post-industrial) civilization (Rostow, Daniel Bell, Toffler).   Agrarian civilization a society with a primitive agricultural production, hierarchical social structure and authority belonging to landowners, the church and the army as a major social institutions.   At the time, N. Kondratiev, studying the cycles of economic conditions, came to the conclusion that they are changing every 40-50 years.  These half century Kondratiev cycles considered as part of the cycle of civilization, which continues on his calculations about 200-300 years.   In Origins of history and its purpose (1949) Jaspers identified in social development are four cut: Prehistory, great historical culture of antiquity (local history), axial age (the beginning of World History),   the era of technology (the transition to a unified world history Danilevsky N. singled out (in chronological order) the following civilization, or cultural-historical styles: Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Phoenician, Indian, Iranian, Jewish, Greek, Roman, Arabian, German-Romanesque  (European) and Slavic. Spengler considered such historical and cultural worlds: the Egyptian, Indian, Babylonian, Chinese, Greco-Roman (apollonovsky), Mayan and Western European (Faust).   X.  White, using a topological approach, outlined four civilizational and historical types of culture: the ironic (Western Europe), metaphorical (Middle East), sinekdotichesky (India) and analogical (China).   In a direct clash between two types of civilized development, Eastern and Western, at a time when the power of the state was determined by techno-economic and political-military advantage, we found a clear superiority of European civilization.  This gave birth in the minds of European intellectuals of the illusion of inferiority of the Eastern world, in the wake of which emerged the concept of modernization as a way of familiarizing inert East to civilization.  On the other hand, in the East against the Europeans almost until the end of the XIX century.  the conception of the vast moral and ethical superiority of Eastern civilization, that of western barbarians borrow nothing, except the machine technology.  [2, s.366]   Considering the classification of civilizations, scholars Orientalists believed that it was divided into two tree East and West, have their own, unique ways of development, of which natural and normal recognizes the east, while west is regarded as a mutation bias.  Other scholars have also offered to share all of civilization into two types, but give them a different interpretation: one of them manmade declares a characteristic of Western Europe, and the second psychogenic to Eastern countries, example of which is Indian civilization of the past.   Thus, many authors of the concept of culture and civilization divided and even opposed.  To include the field of spirituality, culture (ideas), and to civilization the result area of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹the material (things).  Civilization was treated as a material unit of culture.  Argues that culture is dying and snikaet before the triumph of civilization.Common and different interpretation of civilization, when it is presented as general characteristics of the historically specific types of sociality and culture.  In this case civilization is understood as a certain degree of social history, the continued development of peoples and the world in general, determined by cash condition of the social structure and spiritual world.  The most concise definition of civilization is this: Civilization socio-cultural complexes, folding at different times in different regions of the earth and bearing the features of the social and cultural identity.  That is why the common expression the Inca civilization, Greek civilization, ancient civilization, modern civilization, etc. [3, p.83]     Today the problem of Civilizations aims to researchers such problems whose solution requires a scientific approach and philosophy well conceived.  These problems are primarily such as the nature of the crisis experienced by individual cultures, particularly Western culture, the future of the Western world, strengthening of cultural identity and the resurgence of nationalism, the ratio of the modern man of religion, technology, science, the relationship between East and West, etc.     In developing a definition of civilization and the evaluation of specific civilizations, much depends on the position of the researcher.  Among the most representative theories of civilizations theory is primarily AJ. Toynbee, who continues the line of N. Danilevsky and Spengler.     His theory may be regarded as the culminating point in the development of theories of local civilizations.  Monumental study of Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, many scientists recognize a masterpiece of historical and macrosociological science.  Another of his work entitled Civilization before the court of history is devoted mainly on the clash of civilizations in the modern era.   In the study, Study of History on the basis of in-depth study of the colossal facts of world history Toynbee attempt to rethink the trends of socio-historical development of mankind in the spirit of local civilizations.  Ideas, concepts, definitions, facts, countries and peoples, past and future merge in a complex pattern, but rather points to the presence of a mystery than giving clarity and consistency of past events.   In his studies, Arnold Toynbee also believed that civilization has certain types of human communities, causing certain associations in the field of religion, architecture, art, morals, customs in short, a culture.   Unlike Spengler, who was absolutely not interested in any other culture than their allocated eight great, as historian Arnold Toynbee is concerned to describe all of the historically existing civilization.   In a comparative study of civilizations Toynbee examines and describes six representatives of the species five living and one dead and two groups of relics.As a result, a more detailed analysis revealed thirteen representatives.   Lets try to briefly address some of these types of societies.   1.  Orthodox Christian community.   * Toynbee AJ. A Study of History.  Moscow, 2002, pp.  45.     6   Orthodox Christian community, like the Western Christian, is in the filial relationship with the Hellenic society, and hence the conclusion is that one society may be in the paternal relatives relationships with several different companies.To understand how this is possible, let us turn to the geographical factor.   The rod axis of the Orthodox Christian world has its origin in the center of the Hellenic world, in the Aegean Sea.  Expansion of the Orthodox Christian community was not in a straight line: in the north-east, it initially established in Georgia, and later it passed through the Caucasus Mountains, reaching Alanya, where he was discovered out in the great Eurasian steppe, in the northwest, it swept the Balkans.  Orthodox Christianity spread, and along the transverse axis, which crosses the main axis of Constantinople.  Sea route brought Orthodox Christianity to the paternal Hellenic Society.  Differentiation of the Western and Orthodox Christianity gave rise to two different societies.  One Chrysalis Catholic Church formed two independent organism: the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church *.   Iranian and Arab society.  Next living society Islamic.  Appeal to the sources of his stories is the discovery of the universal state (Baghdad Abbasid Caliphate), the universal church (Islam) and the movement of tribes (the movement of Turkic and Mongol nomads of the Great Steppe, etc.).  Detected and signs of paternal society.  The Islamic Society was born on the territory of the Asian highlands, forming gradually a number of independent states, from which comes almost all the States of the modern Islamic world.  Two of the Islamic Society of filial one more akin to the old society, which is beyond the visible historical horizon.   1.2.  The concept of culture   The text of chapter   2.  Classification of Civilizations   2.1.  Civilization in Toynbee   Understand the history of a country, it is usually impossible without considering its relations and interactions with other countries.  To explain the event in its history, it is necessary to compare them with what is happening in other countries.  But this does not imply that the study of the history of any country should take the whole world and all history of mankind.  For example, a historian studying the history of Kievan Rus, it is necessary to consider its relations with the Byzantine Empire: without this, it is impossible to explain where, how and why the spread in Russia of Orthodox Christianity, which even now is a bridge between the Slavic and East European nations.  During the formation of civilization, as a conglomerate of countries with common historical, cultural, racial, linguistic and spiritual bonds should be paid to the special role of religious and philosophical teachings, because  their dissemination contributes to the expansion of the civilization in w hich these teachings are fundamental.   Thus, we can conclude that:   1.  Civilization is a society that far exceed the national government not only territory but also the duration of its existence;   2.  their culture with greater length, both in space and in time than the national state, city, state, or any other political alliances *.  Indeed, the historian, while remaining within its boundaries, should be able to understand all aspects of social life not only politically and economically, and culturally, which is the most profound and fundamental.  Therefore, the field of historical study covers a rather broad spatial-temporal region, which houses the society, which is able to consist of a set of states.  This society is a complete historical education, which is the social atom the basic unit of the story: Society, not the state is a social atom , which should focus its attention historian **.   Society of this type Toynbee called civilization.  Each civilization is a closed and independent from the other world.  Of course, completely isolated from external influences of civilization, apparently does not exist.  Yet each of them has relative autonomy, sufficient to allow for analysis of its history to abstract from the influence on it from other civilizations.   Geographical boundaries of the area occupied by any civilization, may change over time.  But none of the surveyed companies do not cover the whole of humanity, does not extend to the entire inhabited earth, and has no peer among the societies of its kind, our Western society, for example, is not perceived as something whole, while Hellenic Society, being one of the original members of the societies  species has not reached its maturity *.  World history is the history of different civilizations, coexisting alongside each other.   The duration of a single civilization more than the lifetime of any single nation, but at the same time, less than the time allotted to humanity as a whole.  It makes Toynbee to address the question of the continuity of history.  He distinguishes between on the one hand, a continuous sequence of phases of the history of the same civilization (similar to the periods of the life of an individual), while the other a continuous relationship over time between different civilizations (which resembles the relationship between parents and their children).  It is obvious that in the second case when filial-paternal continuity continuity in the development of societies is considerably weaker.   But nevertheless, it is like genetic inheritance determines the similarity of cultures.   2.2.  Civilization by Samuel Huntington   According to Huntington, a civilization is the cultural community of the highest rank, as the broadest level of peoples identity, which is determined by the presence of common features of the objective order, as well as subjective self-identification of people.  Divide by civilization probation.  And until now, according to Huntington, nation-states play a major role in global geopolitics, but the behavior of the system and the international orientation of these states are easier to control and predict, if conditionally divide the world on how communities.According to Huntington the creation of these communities (civilization) is meaningful only when using the culture (ie set of spiritual and material values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹created by this civilization, as well as the ability to play them) as the main factor, that is, combining all the civilization of countries belonging  to certain cultures.  Of course, you can not talk about full of cultural identity of any two different human communities.  When considering the two different human communities identified as belonging to one particular culture, one can not see the distinct cultural differences between them, but there is a third community, belonging to a completely different culture, which differ radically from both.  Here is the principle of separation of civilizations, thats a practical explanation of the Huntington: A village in southern Italy for its culture may be different from the same village in Northern Italy, but they remain the name of Italian villages, they should not be confused with the German.  In turn, European countries have common cultural traits that distinguish them from the Chinese or the Arab world.   Civilization defined by the presence of common objective features (history, language, religion ) and direct subjective self-identification of people of this civilization, and it (identity) can vary over time, resulting in change and civilization.  Therefor e it is impossible to speak of a monolithic civilizations, they themselves may consist of several nation-states may stratify at each other, include subtsivilizatsii.  Due to certain reasons the different community (they can be called ethnic groups) may be culturally dissociate from each other at such a distance that they would be easier and fairer to call different civilizations.  Particularly striking example of this a selection of Japanese Civilization: Japan, as is known, has its roots in China and Southeast Asia, but culturally evolved on the other hand, different from their branches, resulting in Japan now and is considered as a separate civilization.Huntington defines civilization as the broadest level of cultural identity people.  The next level unlike humanity from other creatures.  Due to the dimensions of civilization in the world today has 8.7 Huntington civilizations, covering the whole inhabited world.  These civilizations: Western (western Europe and North America), Latin (includes South and Central America), Africa (central and some southern and northern Africa. Huntington calls it as a contender for the title of civilization), Islamic (Part of the northern  Africa, Central Asia and part of Southeast Asia), Orthodox (Shes Russian, East European and East-Christian. Eastern Europe, Siberia. According to Huntington on the verge of extinction), Hindu (Part of South Asia), Confucian  (it is Chinese. China and South-east of mainland Asia) and Japanese civilization.  These civilizations exist at the moment, but of course there were other civilizations, and probably will be others.Civilization is not constant in the development and existence, that is, civilization can survive the period of prosperity, birth, decay, death, etc.  In total, according to Huntington (he refers to Toynbee) and 21 can speak of civilization.   3.  Clash of Civilizations   3.1.  Scientific concept of Samuel Huntingtons clash of civilizations   In the summer of 1993 in the journal  «Foreign Affairs », published an article by Samuel Huntington, entitled The Clash of Civilizations?.  Then this article caused a great stir throughout the world.  In this article, Huntington put forward his vision for peace after the Cold War, the basic idea of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹which was that the main players in the global arena now will not state and government, and civilization, which may comprise up to several tens of states.  The main causes of wars will be no economic or political interests, cultural clashes.  Ideology, which had great significance in the XX century gives way to culture as the main dominant global geopolitical processes.  Border confrontation between different blocks will be determined not belonging to any of the three worlds and belonging to a particular culture, community.   Huntington believed that he created a system of world development and international relations the concept of clash of civilizations is the final phase of the stadial development of global conflicts in modern times.  After the Thirty Years War (1618-1648 gg.) And the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, which issued the modern international system in Europe, both western and eastern, conflicts unfolded mainly between the rulers of states, seeking to multiply the strength of their country in all possible ways,  including through the accession of new lands.   As a result of this process have formed a sufficiently powerful state, then became national.  In connection with the modernization of society and as a consequence of the states themselves have themselves become a nation determines the course of policy, both foreign and domestic.  For a point of transition takes Huntington in 1793, the French Revolution.  This way the global geopolitical persisted until the end of World War II.  With the end of World War I and the completion of the revolutions in Russia and Germany, the clash of nations has given way to a conflict of ideologies.  The main players on the world scene now became three ideological camps Liberalistichesky, communist and nationalist.  After the Second World War and the defeat of Germany started a fight between two ideologies: communism and liberal democracy, or so-called cold war.  Neither the USSR nor the United States were a nation-state in the classic sense of the term, so that conflict is none other than the conflict of ideologies.   Huntington believes that all of the above described stages in the development of peace and international relations is the civil wars of the West, because a detailed examination of each stage can be seen a tendency to absolutism and without the enormous role of the West (Europe, primarily) in all world conflicts.Absolute apogee of the West in the global geopolitical space came in today and requires permission.  The situation predicted more Spengler in his book The Decline of Europe and now the West is ready to give up a lot in order to maintain the current, lose influence in the world, in particular the West is ready to waive part of its ideology.  One of these victims may be called the idea of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Eurocentrism, which is increasingly giving way to other approaches consider the historical and geopolitical processes in the world.  The concept of Clash of Civilizations is one such concessions in the continuation of Western domination in the earths po litics.  Evidence, albeit indirect, for this is probably not fully voiced in Huntingtons treatise, but a very practical purpose of this theory: to improve the process of forecasting the geopolitical situation to conduct a successful policy of jogging civilizations with each other and forcing a civilization for destructivethese situations, which should preserve the primacy of Western influence.   3.2.  Is it possible to prevent a clash of civilizations?   This question has always been relevant, but now, with the expansionary impending war in the Middle East, especially.  Huntingtons opinion:   The most important conflicts of the future will unfold along the fault lines between civilizations.  He cites a series of arguments, explaining his theory:   The culture of any civilization is unique.  It has its own cultural achievements, such as language, history, tradition, religion and the values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹expressed in the relations between human society and state, God. Because of this strong cultural differentiation, which does not disappear in the foreseeable future, there is greater likelihood of conflict  especially along the lines of contact between civilizations, which can escalate into conflicts, including the global.  Huntington believes that all the worst conflict in human history have been bred specifically the differences between civilizations.   Contacts between Civilizations deeper and more frequent.  As a consequence, against the backdrop of visible differences between civilizations, the cultural identity of representatives of these civilizations is enhanced.  Under this culture is the dominant force in modern geopolitics.   The economic and social development, people are starting to move away from self-identification of himself with a place of residence and country of residence.  In place, the role of religion in the identity of people increases, so that the process of desekulyarizatsii society in the world at large.   Huntington believes that the West (the U.S., especially) is now at the peak of its power, and it boosts civilization back to its roots   With increasing level of intra-regional economy grows and the value of links between regions.  But this relationship is most successful when community civilizations.  Since the intra-connection between parts of one civilization is rapidly being established and strengthened, in contrast to the regional relations between civilizations, where cultural differences can become an insurmountable obstacle.Huntington believes that there are two levels of conflict of civilizations.  The first the microlevel, where the conflict occurs between the parts of individual civilizations for territory and power.  And the second level the macro-level, where the struggle is to dominate the world on military, political and economic parameters, to extend its influence as widely as possible.   Huntington, however, still recognize the primacy and uniqueness of Western civilization (especially the impact of the U.S.) with respect to all the others: In a world where there is no rule of the United States will be more violence and disorder and less democracy and economic growth than in the world,  where the United States continues to affect more to address global issues than any other country.  Sustained international primacy of the United States is most important to the welfare and safety of Americans and for the future of freedom, democracy, open economies and the international order on the ground.   

How does Smoking effect human lungs, causes cancer and even death

How does Smoking effect human lungs, causes cancer and even death Scientific Research Skills Assignments How does Smoking effect human lungs, causes cancer and even death? Literature Review Smoking stands for intake of tobacco or other related substances either for leisure or in severe cases as an addiction. Smoking is behavior which is reprimandable and highly non acceptable because it not only bring harms to the one who inhales it but to the one who live around him or her including the environment. Addressing the topic of smoking and spreading its proper awareness is very important. This report illustrate dangers of smoking and its effects on one’s mental, physical and psychological wellbeing. Additionally this report will deal with effect of smoking on demographic variation, socio-economic determinants and cognitive factors which are involved in smoking and related behaviors and their impact Approximate age at which people start smoking is 15 in almost each country. Smoking which might start as a fun activity with friends becomes addiction if prolonged. Young people in their early teenage are the biggest victims of smoking and they become regular smoker till their early twenties. Excessive and addictive smoking from such early age increase the danger of early death and other highly risk full diseases. It becomes clear then that adolescents and young adults are the sole and important target of this evil hence they must be given proper awareness to be protect and prevent them to step toward this self-destruction. Doctors can be one important mean of communicating this danger to the target group of this evil but first of all peer can effect each other a lot. Young adults and teenagers take up smoking because of their social relationships and their psychological states, it is important to understand each individual and why they took up smoking. Sometimes young people think t hemselves of no worth or useless so they take up this down trodden road and sometimes conflicts at home or at school and college may lead to such dangerous situations. Relationships at house can also be the trigger as well as bullying. Many people are not aware or not properly aware with the working of nicotine and addictive nature of smoking. Family, peers, doctors, family physicians can play a central influential role of informing the smokers about the hazards of smoking and where it might lead them. Sometimes family is ignorant and does not care what one is doing out of home so in such cases parents and family need counseling as well to be cautious and careful about the habits and activities if their family members. Smoking cigarette causes many diseases and initial ones can be cough and phlegm production leading to severe respiratory illness (Morris. C, 1990). Inhale the smoke, take them as vaporizer or brew them into tea; tobacco, marijuana, hashish once into the body will affect every organ of the body, brain, nervous system and the central immunity system. Smoker feels instant changes and reactions in the body which stops after 2 to 3 hours. It effects heart, results in low blood pressure and also the blood sugar level is affected (Ratini, MDweb Medical Reference, 2014). Excessive smoking can cause cancers and other dangerous diseases. It starts by irritation and coughing and leads to lung cancer and in severe cases ends at death (Ratini, MDweb Medical Reference, 2014). Tobacco and tobacco products are responsible for approximately 3 million deaths across the world that makes it 6% of all deaths. It is believed that deaths by tobacco and tobacco products are going to increase more than 10% by a decade and will exceed 20% in developing countries (WHO, 2011). There is no second thought to the fact that smoking effects lungs primarily either one is a long term smoker or smoked for few times. Level of lung functioning is too low in people with the habit of smoking as compared to people who do not smoke and this functioning keep on decreasing with the ongoing habit of smoking. Smoking effects lungs and its working but symptoms may appear later and when the diseases is recognized, it is usually too late to be cured. Smoking not only causes cancer but other lung related chronic diseases as well (Spitzer, 2001). Tobacco smoke has several different harmful particles and chemicals that causes irritation and inflammation in the respiratory tracts and lungs. When such potentially harmful substances are inhaled by a smoker, body reacts to them and releases mucus and coughing to clear them. Very smoker suffer from a morning attack of severe coughing which happens from several reasons. Human lungs contain tiny hair like extension called cilia which push and clean the potentially injurious material out of lungs but the tobacco smoking interferes with the working of cilia and effecting their sweeping action of harmful substances so consequentially much of the harmful substances stay in the lungs causing mucus discharge and inflammation of the respiratory tracts as well. So when smokers are sleeping or they aren’t smoking, cilia continues with their normal function of cleaning the harmful substances out of lungs and when smoker wake up, lungs are busy in trying to remove the particles and mucus built up a day before (questions about smoking and health, 2014) . Working of cilia stops after prolonged exposition to smoke hence lung is unable to sweep out the harmful substances and become vulnerable to many infections and irritation causing mucus and cough. This smoker cough is the early precursor to further chronic disease like COPD, chronic bronchitis, lung cancer and others. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is lung disease which results from long term smoking and includes symptoms and effects of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. According to a research nearly 12 million people in United States of America suffer with this illness and another 12 million suffer with the disease but are unaware of its early symptoms and signs. And the rate of people suffering with COPD is increasing day by day that it has become the third major reason of death in the United States. It has also been noted that women suffer from COPD more acutely then men. Major reason behind suffering from COPD is smoking, almost 80-90% of COPD deaths results from smoking. There is no cure for COPD and its effects depends on how long and heavily the patient been smoking. Early symptoms and signs of the disease go unnoticed in early smoker, but the time it is diagnosed it has done its work. Early symptoms of the illness may include different noises like rattling and whistling in the chest, shortage of breath during some activities, heavy coughing along mucus (phlegm) discharge. With the time as the disease grows it make hard and impossible for one to breathe. It restricts one’s activities because of shortness of breath and results in grave health issues. Chronic stage of COPD cause patients to gasp for the breath (American Cancer Institute, 2014). Chronic Bronchitis Chronic bronchitis is another form of COPD, an illness which causes respiratory tracts to discharge heavy mucus, thus resulting in choking and shortness of breath and makes the patient to cough out all the mucus. Bronchitis is a common disease for smokers, so smokers must be ready to face the flaks of their unhealthy habit. Constant mucus discharge results in inflamed and swollen wind pipe and produces long lasting chronic cough. With the help of medication, symptoms can be cured but cough never go away and mucus inflammation can result in bad respiratory infections as well like pneumonia. There is no treatment for chronic bronchitis but stopping smoking can do little help and can control the inflammation and cough and with the time it may get better as well but if one doesn’t leave smoking then the illness keep on growing (American Cancer Institute, 2014). Emphysema Emphysema another form of COPD results from excessive smoking which gradually hampers one’s ability to breathe. There are tiny sacks in our lungs which provide surface area to oxygen in lungs to get mixed with the blood. But in emphysema these small sacks rupture and results in few large sacs which narrows the surface area and allow less oxygen to enter blood and sometime very less oxygen mix up with blood. With the passage of time disease get severe, very little oxygen reach up to blood and person had to do lot of efforts to breathe. It not only hampers one’s daily activities but make one gasp for breath even at rest. Symptoms of emphysema includes constant and heavy cough which never go away (Smoker’s cough), shortage of breath even when one is not working, dizziness, decrease in weight and general body fatigue. People suffering from emphysema may suffer from other health issues specifically related to lungs and can cause poor lung functioning, lung infections like pneumonia, shortage of breath to an extent that an individual has to rely on oxygen tube. There is no cure of treatment of this illness but the only possible solution is to quit smoking so the symptoms lessen down with the passage of time but if one doesn’t quit smoking it may lead to cancer and death as well (American Cancer Institute, 2014). Resources: Morris and Koyama, 1990 Joel Spitzer, 2001 American Cancer Institute, 2014 World Health Organization, 2011 Two research topics can be developed from this literature Smoking is one of the leading causes of death in United states; Smoking causes lung disorders even cancer as well. 5. It is very much evident from above mentioned researches and studies that smoking have an injurious and direct effect on one’s health specifically on lungs and may lead to cancer and death as well. It is very important to study the effects of smoking, smoking behaviors and its resulting health effects because smoking is one of the greatest causes behind lung cancers and deaths across the globe. This matter should be dealt seriously and immediate attention should be paid. 6. In the above mentioned research topic â€Å"Effects of smoking on lungs leading to cancer and death† smoking is the independent variable in this proposed topic of research as it bring changes but remain unaffected itself. Lungs, cancer and death are the three dependent variables as the amount of change and effect they will bear depends on the smoking. Smoking: Independent variable of the research, effects health, lungs, cause cancer and death; Lungs: dependent variable, effects by the independent variable smoking; Cancer: a major effect of smoking independent variable, is a dependent variable Death: a dependent variable, independent variable smoking leads to death. 7. â€Å"Effects of smoking on lungs causing cancer and death† 8. Where smoking is independent variable while effects on lungs, cancer and death are dependent variable. 9. Hypothesis: Smoking effects lungs and causes cancer and even lead toward death. Questions: 1. does smoking effects lungs functioning? 2. Does smoking cause cancer? 3. Does smoking lead to death? Statement: Effects of smoking on lungs, causing cancer and death. 10. Questions are the best choice for the detailed study and analysis of the subject matter. 11. Questions are best suitable for this research because smoking has different forms like mild, chronic and chain smoking which have different effects on lungs, causing cancer and leading toward death. Each questions will lead to detailed answer and explanation of how and why smoking effects lungs, causes cancer and death. If hypothesis is considered as objective then it might fail to highlight the different effects of smoking on lungs, smoking causing cancer and smoking leading to death individually, and it would rather warp up the discussion generally. So questions are the most suitable mode of inquiry for this research as each effect of smoking will be answer and laid out separately. 12. Conceptual definition: conceptual definition is the clear statement or description of something or how something works. It is used to define a term clearly, concisely and precisely. For example â€Å"Anxiety†, a conceptual definition of anxiety is unpleasant feeling effecting one’s working in few specific situations but sometimes motivate positive behaviors as well Operational Definition: Operational definition stand for defining something under different parameters, measurements and situations in order to validate it. Operational definitions can be very simple to very complex ones depending on the variables being used. An operational definition of anxiety can be that anxiety is just not a feeling but a physiological reaction of body resulting in increased heartbeat, muscle tension, sweating etc. 13. Conceptual definition. Smoking: an act of inhaling of tobacco or other related smoking products and exhale of smoke and other harmful gases. Lungs: A pair of organ found in almost all the living organism specifically in vertebrates, involved in inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide. Lungs provide oxygen to whole body. Cancer: A harmful disease resulting from uncontrollable cell growth and have several different form depending on the area of body. Death: a state where an organism is not alive, breathing or sensing the environment. Death is also called expiry. 14. Operational definitions: Smoking: intake of tobacco and other harmful substances like nicotine etc. into lungs and outtake of harmful gases like carbon di oxide. Smoking causes social and physical illness Lungs: a pair of respiratory organs in humans involved in the oxygenation of the body. Lung are effected by the type of air inhaled, if smoke is inhaled it will have different effects on lungs then clean fresh air. Cancer: a specific form of cancer caused by poor functioning of lungs, inflammation of respiratory tracts, rupturing of air sacs, chronic cough and mucus discharge, difficulty or unable to breathe and physical deterioration of the lungs as well. Death: end of life resulting when lungs stops functioning and body is unable to get oxygen. 15. Level of measurement means classifying variables to develop a scale. Nominal scale will be used to find out the percentage and tendency of lung disorders, cancer and death resulting from smoking. Descriptive statistics will be used to summarize the data collected from the sample. 16. Data collection method depends on the type of variables and the relationship between them and is a systematic process to validate the hypothesis or answer the questions. There are three data collection methods, surveys, focus groups and interviews. It is the data collection which determine the authenticity of the research. Data collection instruments stands for the process data will be collected. Survey will be the instrument precisely data collection instrument to collect data from the population to find out the answers to questions. 17. A reliable and valid research instrument always give constant and accurate results whenever tested and studied. Reliability and validity of the questions will be done by a pilot study and by experts’ advice so to make sure questions are understandable and consistent. 18. Population of study is divided into two categories depending on the instrument of data collection. Individuals from rehabilitation centers will be the main population along the cancer patients in the hospitals as well. Apart from that interviews will be conducted with the physicians of patients suffering from lung cancer. 19. Simple random sampling technique will be used as it is the most convenient process to collect data. Researcher will visit the rehabilitation center and hospital and focus on the individuals with smoking related issues. 20. Research design refers to the overall planning and strategy to carry out research by linking and integrating all the components of research to find out solution to the research problem. This study is a descriptive study to find out relationship between variables by using research questions. Descriptive study attempts to define the link between various variables and will answer all the questions descriptively. 21. This study is both qualitative and quantitative. Research questions will be analyzed quantitatively to generate statistical data while interviews will be analyzed qualitatively. References: Morris. C, K. (1990). A manual on tobacco and young people for the industrialized world. http://books.google.com.pk/books/about/A_Manual_on_Tobacco_and_Young_People_for.html?id=53geAQAACAAJredir_esc=y (2014). questions about smoking and health. American Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/tobaccocancer/questionsaboutsmokingtobaccoandhealth/questions-about-smoking-tobacco-and-health-how-tobacco-affects-lungs Ratini, M. (2014). MDweb Medical Reference. Retrieved from http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/addiction/marijuana-use-and-its-effects?page=2 Spitzer, J. (2001). neer take another puff. Retrived from http://whyquit.com/joel/Joel_02_17_smoke_in_lung.html Tobacco, smoking and cancer: the evidence. September, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-info/healthyliving/smoking-and-cancer/stats-evidence/tobacco-smoking-and-cancer-the-evidence

Analysis On Racism In Huck Finn Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In July of 1876, a man by the name of Samuel Clemens began writing one of the most important and influential works in America’s literary history. Under the pseudonym of Mark Twain, the work was begun as a sequel to Twain’s popular boy’s adventure novel, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. As he progressed in the writing of the sequel, Twain, an author already noted for his humor, cynicism, and American social criticism, began to lean away from strictly the boy’s adventure style towards a more serious, critical look at society. By the time Twain had finished writing the novel in 1884, eight years after it was begun, he had produced The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, his greatest work and possibly on of the greatest works of American literature. With The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain attempted to illustrate his contempt for certain aspects of specifically pre-Civil War Southern society through the eyes of the innocent Huck Finn. Howeve r, his focus was not entirely on pre-War Southern society, for criticism of aspects of modern society as a whole was evident, as well as on aspects of human nature. Although Twain had essential produced a superficial boy’s adventure novel, it’s very themes are not characteristic of such a genre. The themes that are developed throughout the novel include that of hypocrisy, racism, violence, and gullibility. These four themes represent the elements of pre-War Southern society that bear Twain’s main criticisms throughout the pages of the novel. Specifically, much of Twain’s critical focus landed upon the theme of racism. Racism, in all of its ignorance and crudeness, is present in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, from the Widow Douglas and Miss Watson’s attempt to â€Å"sivilize† Huck to Tom Sawyer’s startling acclamation that Jim was already free. Huck is confronted with example after example of Southern society’s innate racis m, some of which Huck too has inherited. As Jim and Huck journey down the mighty Mississippi, Huck begins to lose those inborn racist sentiments in his through his uninfluenced life with Jim. By closely developing the theme of racism through Huck’s internal struggle with reality and with society’s reality, Twain attempts to illustrate his contempt for the outright injustice of one of society’s most disturbing and irrational aspects.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the novel b... ...probes deeper into Jim’s despair, he discovers that Jim feels wholeheartedly guilty about an incident that occurred in his relationship with his deaf and dumb daughter. Jim’s great display of emotion surprises Huck, for he has inherited the belief that a black man is not capable of such a degree of emotion. â€Å"He was thinking about his wife and his children, away up yonder, and he was low and homesick; because he hadn’t ever been away from home before in his life; and I do believe that he cared just as much for his people as white folks does their’n. It don’t seem natural, but I reckon it’s so.† (Twain 23) Society’s belief that the black race was inferior to the white race in every way, including emotion, is illustrated in this sentence. Huck’s surprise that Jim loves his family just as much as white people do is simply a belief that he has inherited from civilized society. Twain demonstrates the inherent racial prejudice of pre-Civil War Southern society in a satirical manner. The notion that black people do not care for the families as much as white people care for theirs seems utterly ridiculous to the reader. However, in the South, this notion was commonplace and accepted.

battle of hastings recruiting :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  October 14th of the year 1066 two armies faced each other near the town of Hastings. 10,000 Norman troops under the command of William of Normandy faced 8,000 Anglo-Saxon soldiers led by Harold the current king of England. Geoffrey Parker, Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare (Cambridge: 1995), pp. 82-3. Harold's 8,000 men consisted of Housecarls, the local Fyrd, and local village volunteers. David Howarth, 1066: The Year of the Conquest (New York: 1977),pp.170-1 The two armies clashed on that day and history tells us the outcome. But what forces go into creating an army of these sizes? The three main Anglo-Saxon troop types will be defined and the forces that created them will be examined below.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Three troop types would fight for the Anglo-Saxons the Housecarls, the Fyrd, and local peasantry. The Housecarls were professional soldiers under the service of the King and the Earls of the Kingdom. Harold used the Housecarls of the King and his Housecarls of his Earldom of Wessex. He also used the Housecarls of his two brothers. The Fyrd was a volunteer citizen army provided by the Thanes of the kingdom. The local peasants fought to protect their homes. David Howarth, 1066: The Year of the Conquest (New York: 1977), pp. 80-1. There were two divisions of fyrd in the 11th century one consisting of a local peasant force and the other a select levy force. C. Warren Hollister, Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions: On the Eve of the Norman Conquest (Oxford: 1962), p. 26.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The local peasant Fyrd that fought at Hastings came from Sussex. C. Warren Hollister, Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions: On the Eve of the Norman Conquest (Oxford: 1962), p.30. All freemen of the area were obligated to provide protection for the local area. This obligation was connected with financial and agricultural obligations. C. Warren Hollister, Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions: On the Eve of the Norman Conquest (Oxford: 1962), pp. 35-6. The peasant fighting force is a Germanic tradition in origin. Based upon a freeman's duty to defend the lands of the king, however the peasant force is a limited army. The king is required to pay the troops if needed for them to leave the area. The peasants have the right to return to there homes at the end of the day. However, they must provide their own equipment. C. Warren Hollister, Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions: On the Eve of the Norman Conquest (Oxford: 1962), pp. 27-8. The primary function of the peasant Fyrd was to provide defense against enemies attack from the sea, such as the events at Hastings.

Virtual Memory

Virtual Memory With today's modern technology, we need to ensure that our computers are able to run quick and with ease. In order to run programs with speed, Individuals need to ensure that they have sufficient memory to allow for programs running. Computers come with memory, but sometimes It Is not enough to run what Is needed or wanted. One way to ensure speed Is to use virtual memory. Virtual memory can be described as memory that emulates RAM, and allows programs to run as though the computer has more memory than It actually does.This Is a great benefit for Individuals who are running various programs at one time. According to Mr.. Stallings, he wrote â€Å"virtual memory allows for very effective multiprogramming and relives the user of the unnecessarily tight constraints of main memory† (p. 343, 2012). Using virtual memory is a good choice to help run programs on your system. There are two approaches to providing virtual memory in a system. They are paging and segmentati on. Paging is dividing the processes into very small fixed pages. When pages are loaded a page table is created.Segmentation is for varying of sizes. When segments are loaded a table is created for this process. A benefit is that paging and segmentation can be combined in memory management. Some benefits of using virtual memory are freeing up your systems RAM, cheaper than buying more RAM, and using either an external hard drive or USB thumb drives also gives you space to use. Freeing up your system's RAM is easy to do by closing out programs you are not using at the moment. This frees up space to be used by a program you are needed at the moment.RAM on some systems is not overly priced depending on the type. Individuals can spend a lot of money on upgrading their RAM if they are not careful with what they really need for their system. Two examples of virtual memory are an external hard drive or a USB thumb drive. Either of these can be used in connection to your system to give virt ual memory. Trying to run many programs at one time can cause your RAM to be full, and then no other programs can be started until others are closed. This is beneficial if you receive an error message stating memory Is low. Inning virtual memory is an alternative to buying more RAM for your system also. Stallings wrote â€Å"the addresses a program may use to reference memory are distinguished from the addresses the memory system uses to Identify physical storage sites, and program-generated addresses are translated automatically to the corresponding machine address† (p. 341 , 2012). If an Individual wants to change the size of their virtual memory, they can on their system. They can right click on their computer Icon, and click on properties.Click on the advanced settings tab, look down or the performance part and click settings. Your system will show a recommended amount of virtual memory, but the person can change It to what they feel Is needed. This is something that can be changed at any time just in case someone tries running on what they think is needed for their system. When installing and running programs, everyone would like their system to run quick. Having the right amount of RAM and virtual memory can help your system run smoothly and efficiently.

Old Age

| Old Age as a Time of New Opportunities| | | | | | The article â€Å"Old Age as a Time of New Opportunities (from the Foundation of Age)† by Betty Friedan opened my eyes to a perspective that I had never really thought about. It was about how old age is usually perceived as another step closer to death. In this article we are able to understand the perspective of an elder female. The female is 59 years old almost 60. She wants to go to Outward Bound which will give her the extreme outdoor experience.She goes with her friend Cecelia Herwich. They have to leave their city clothes and forget about who they were in the past and have to leave behind their professional role. When they arrive at the first campsite they are given their gear. They are given a backpack, poncho, sleeping bag, ground cloth, tin cup, spoon, water bottle, and iodine to purify it. They begin with a three mile jog up and down the road. She turned out to be the slowest because she had problems catching up wit h everyone else.That night they spoke about why they went. A woman named Ruth said she went because she wanted to do something exciting before she settled into a rocking chair. Another that was there was Earl. He said he was drawn in by the simple fact that it was dangerous because he would have to be there for ten days away from what he is used to and not knowing who else would be there along with him. After wards they mention that there are usually more men and that their expedition is the first to have more women involved.They stated that there are usually young men but not young women. Then they ask if women get more adventurous with age. I think that it is true that women get more adventurous the older they get. I think that this is true because they are afraid of retreating to nothing without feeling they did something that they have never tried before. They are afraid because they feel the vicious cycle of cleaning the house, taking care of the children, keeping up with husba nd and kids, etc.They are basically getting tired of the daily routine that they always have to put up with as regular house wives. Women feel they have been put down for too long so they want to do a change in their life. They want to feel that they did something different for once. I think that this would be an excellent topic to discuss in Sociology class. It is a good topic because it can be viewed in various ways. The different ways of viewing this article is interesting because everyone will most likely have a different way of perceiving it by the way their brain is functioning.

Maldives-a paradise on earth Essay

The Republic of Maldives consists of 1,190 islands (fewer than 200 are inhabited) in the Indian Ocean, southwest of Sri Lanka. The Maldives has a population of 270,000, of which about 70,000 reside in Male, the capital city. Beautiful atolls, inhabited by over 1,100 species of fish and other sea life, attract thousands of visitors each year. Tourism facilities are well developed on the resort islands. The Tsunami of December 26, 2004 caused some damage to several hotels and facilities on some of the islands. Most of the tourism infrastructure remains intact. Travelers planning to visit the Maldives should consult with travel agencies or the Maldivian Tourist Board to ensure their itineraries take this event into consideration. Read the Department of State Background Notes on Maldives for additional information. ENTRY/EXIT REQUIREMENTS: A valid passport, along with an onward/return ticket and sufficient funds, is required for entry. A no-cost visitor visa valid for thirty days is issued upon arrival. The Department of Immigration and Emigration routinely approves requests for extension of stays up to ninety days for travelers who present evidence of sufficient funds and who stay in a resort or hotel or present a letter from a local sponsor. Anyone staying over sixty days without proper authorization faces heavy fines and deportation. All visitors departing the Republic of the Maldives (except diplomats and certain exempted travelers) must pay an airport departure tax. Travelers need a yellow fever immunization if they are arriving from an infected area. Arrival by private boat: Travelers arriving by private yacht or boat are granted no-cost visas, usually valid until the expected date of departure. Vessels anchoring in atolls other than Male must have prior clearance through agents in Male. Maldivian customs, police and/or representatives of Maldivian immigration will meet all vessels, regardless of where they anchor. Vessels arriving with a dog on board will be permitted anchorage, but the dog will not be allowed off the vessel. Any firearms or ammunition on board will be held for bond until the vessel’s departure. Specific inquiries should be addressed to the Maldives High Commission in  Colombo, Sri Lanka at No. 24, Melbourne Avenue, Colombo 4, telephone (94) (11) 2580076/2586762/2500943, or the Maldives Mission to the U.N. in New York, telephone (212) 599-6194. See our Foreign Entry Requirements brochure for more information on the Maldives and other countries. Visit the website of the Maldives Permanent Mission to the United Nations at http://www.un.int/maldives/ for the most current visa information. Find more information about Entry and Exit Requirements pertaining to dual nationality and the prevention of international child abduction. Please refer to our Customs Information to learn more about customs regulations. SAFETY AND SECURITY: For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). The Department of State urges American citizens to take responsibility for their own personal security while traveling overseas. For general information about appropriate measures travelers can take to protect themselves in an overseas environment, see the Department of State’s pamphlet A Safe Trip Abroad. CRIME: The Maldives has a low crime rate, but thefts of valuables left unattended on beaches or in hotels does occur. INFORMATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport  should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed. See our information on Victims of Crime. MEDICAL FACILITIES AND HEALTH INFORMATION: The Maldives has limited medical facilities. There are two hospitals in Male: the government-owned Indira Gandhi Memorial Hospital (IGM) and the privately-owned Abduarahman Don Kaleyfan Hospital (ADK). ADK accepts some insurance plans, but IGM does not. The hospitals perform general, orthopedic and neurosurgery, but the Maldives has no trauma units, and spinal surgery is not available. Persons needing treatments not offered in the Maldives require evacuation to the nearest adequate medical facility, such as in Singapore. Two recompression chambers are available in the Maldives. One is on Bandos Island (fifteen minutes by speedboat from Male) and the other is in Kuramathi (one hour by speed boat and about twenty minutes by air taxi from Male.) Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith. MEDICAL INSURANCE: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. Please see our information on medical insurance overseas. TRAFFIC SAFETY AND ROAD CONDITIONS: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning the Maldives is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance. Only a few of the islands are big enough to support automobiles. Most transportation in the Maldives is by boat or seaplane (air taxi). The Maldives has good safety standards for land, sea, and air travel. Roads in Male and on the airport island are brick and generally well maintained. Dirt roads on resort islands are well kept by the resorts. Transportation on the small island on which the capital, Male, is situated is either by foot or by readily-available taxis. Transportation between the airport and Male, as well as to nearby resort islands, is by motorized water taxi and speedboat. Several local companies provide seaplane and helicopter service to outlying islands. Air taxis stop flying one hour before sunset, and several resorts do not transport passengers by boat between the airport and the resort island later than one hour before sunset. Visitors to distant resorts arriving in the country at night can expect to stay overnight at a hotel in Male or at the airport hotel and should confirm transfer arrangements in advance. SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES: Religious Laws: Public observance of any religion other than Islam is prohibited. Religious gatherings such as Bible study groups are prohibited; however, a family unit may practice its religion, including Bible readings, within its residence. It is against the law to invite or encourage Maldivian  citizens to attend these gatherings. Offenders may face jail sentences, expulsion and/or fines. In the past, several non-Maldivian families resident in the Maldives, including some Americans, were expelled for allegedly engaging in religious proselytizing. Although Maldivian law prohibits importing â€Å"idols for religious worship,† tourists traveling to the resort islands are generally allowed to bring in items and texts used for personal religious observances. Currency: Credit cards are increasingly accepted outside large hotels and resorts; cash payment in dollars is accepted at most retail shops and restaurants and by taxi drivers.